Collagen biomaterials: From traditional animal sources to marine and recombinant alternatives

Abstract

Collagen is the most abundant structural protein in animals and a key biomaterial due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and versatile functional properties. Traditionally, collagen has been obtained from land animal tissues such as bovine, porcine, and donkey skin, tendon, and bone. However, concerns regarding disease transmission, immunogenicity, and cultural restrictions have driven the exploration of alternative sources. Marine organisms, including fish, jellyfish, and sea cucumber, provide collagens that are widely reported to exhibit lower immunogenic responses compared with mammalian sources, alongside reduced zoonotic and prion-related safety concerns, although these observations are context-dependent and influenced by species origin, processing methods, and intended application. More recently, recombinant technologies using microbial and eukaryotic expression systems have emerged as innovative strategies to produce human-like collagens with tailored properties and improved safety. Together, these diverse sources expand the availability of collagen for a wide range of applications, from food and beverage systems to biomedical uses in tissue engineering, wound healing, and cosmetics. By outlining the advantages and limitations of land animal, marine, and recombinant collagen sources, this review highlights the growing importance of collagen as a multifunctional biomaterial and underscores the potential of emerging sustainable alternatives.